International Research Journal of Environment Sciences________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 64 Diversity of Endemic and Threatened Ethnomedicinal Plant Species in Meghalaya, North-East India Aabid Hussain Mir, Krishna Upadhaya2* and Hiranjit ChoudhuryDepartment of Environmental Studies, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong-793022, INDIA Department of Basic Sciences and Social Sciences, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong-793022, INDIA Available online at: www.isca.in, www.isca.me Received 12th November 2014, revised 17th December 2014, accepted 21st December 2014 AbstractPlants play a vital role in the healthcare of the local tribal people in Meghalaya. A number of species are used for curing a wide range of ailments. Traditional remedies are part of the cultural and spiritual life of these people. The objective of the study was to evaluate the diversity and role of endemic and threatened plant species in ethnomedicine. A total of 131 species, including 36 endemic and 113 species under different threat categories were found. This includes 73 and 46 species that falls under different degrees of threats at regional and global levels respectively. The life form of these plants can be arranged in the order of trees�herbs�shrubs�climbers�epiphytes. It was also found that the indigenous community holds substantial knowledge on ethnomedicinal plants that plays an important role in assisting the primary healthcare needs of the people. These plants would be of much benefit, if evaluated and introduced in the modern scientific health care system. However, the decline in population due to overharvesting and habitat destruction of these plants calls for necessary measures for their effective conservation. Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, herbal remedy, endemic, threatened, rare, northeast India. Introduction Throughout the world, conventional medicine has remained as the most important, reasonable and easily available source of primary treatment in the healthcare systems. Despite the development in science and technology, still about 80% of the population in developing countries are dependent on the conventional medicines, mainly obtained from plants in the wild2,3. This also holds true in case of Meghalaya, a state in northeast India which is a part of Indo Burma hotspot. A total of 3,128 flowering plant species have been reported from the state, of which 1,236 species are endemic and 834 (27%) are of medicinal importance. The state is dominated by the tribal people (Khasi, Jaintia and Garo), who are dependent on the forests for their day to day life. The use of wild plants as a source of medicine is a part of the custom and ethnicity of these people. Their deep-rooted culture of using medicinal plants have acquainted them with knowledge of medicinal properties of several plants, which are now used to treat human and livestock ailments, and this knowledge is being transferred from generation to generation. Medicinal plants have played an immense role in supporting the primary healthcare system of the state. About 95% of traditional medicine preparations are mentioned to be of plant origin, and 90% of the rural people depend on this system. The collection and processing of these medicinal plants contributes a main part to the economy of the state6,10. Although the tribal’s of Meghalaya have cultural heritage of in-situ conservation for these plants11, but these plants are increasingly falling under various threat categories due to destruction of their natural habitats12,13. The pressure on the wild population of medicinal plants has increased due to exploitation of forest resources for commercial purposes. Also habitat destruction has rendered many of the common species as rare and threatened in the state and is unavailable to the indigenous people who have relied on them for millennia. The conservation and management of endemic and threatened species have become an important issue in the present scenario. Although a number of studies are available on the medicinal plants from different parts of the state6,7,14,15, but meager information is available on endemic and threatened medicinal plants. Therefore, the objective of the present review was to evaluate the diversity and role of endemic and threatened plant species of the state in ethnomedicine. The study also aims to provide an opening for policy makers, natural resource managers, stake holders and traditional practitioners to take necessary conservation measures, for these medicinally important plants. Material and Methods A database on diversity, status and traditional uses of medicinal plants of Meghalaya was compiled using all available literature on medicinal plants published in scientific journals, books, reports from national, regional and international organizations, theses, and conference papers. Three sets of data were used for the present analysis viz, rare, endemic and threatened plant species. Under rare category, only those species that are considered as rare to the state of Meghalaya were included16-19. Species, whose distributions are restricted to Meghalaya or to International Research Journal of Environment Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) International Science Congress Association the North-eastern region including Indo- Burma hotspot, were considered as endemic. Threatened category includes plants classified as per the Red Data Book of Indian plants by Nayar and Sastry18, Walter and Gillett19, Ved et al. IUCN Red List21 . In order to have the rational information on the diseases treated, all the ailments were classified into ten broad ailment categories, with different sub- categories ( Results and Discussion Species diversity: A total of 131 plant species were recorded that were either rare, endemic or threatened and being widely used in traditional health care. These plants were distributed among 74 families and 120 genera. Trees with 53 species (40.5%) were the dominant compon ent followed by 40 (30.5%) herb, 20 (15.3%) shrub, 13 (9.9%) climber and 5 (3.8%) Ailment category Ailment sub - Circulatory system problems Heart trouble, hematoma, high blood pressure and anemia. External injuries, bites and dermatological problems Scabies, ringworms, leprosy, rashes, pimples, acne, itching, dandruff, burns, insect bites, snake bites, caterpillar stings, poison consuming, cuts and wounds. Head, thermoregulatory and nervous system problems Malaria, hypertension, measles, cold, stress and tension, insomnia, anxiety, restlessness and fever. Digestive system and gastrointestinal problems Indigestion, vomiting, nausea, spasms, constipation, intestinal worms, gastric ulcers, stomach pain, liver problems, spleen problems, dysentery and diarrhea. Cancer and musculoskeletal problems Cancer, paralysis, muscular sprain and pain, bone and weakness. Ophthalmological and odological problems Eye injury, conjunctivitis, eye sight problems, ear pain and eye redness. Oro-dental and respiratory problems Bleeding gums and nose, toothache, mouth influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, cough, pulmonary infections, asthma and tuberculosis. Urogenital, gynecological and venereal problems Hydrocoel, diabetes, polyurea, gonorrhea, kidney stone, ameno problems Proportion of endemic and threatened medicinal plant species by occurrence and habit Cultivated WildWild and cultivated Environment Sciences_______________ _________________________ International Science Congress Association Burma hotspot, were considered as endemic. Threatened category includes plants Red Data Book of Indian plants by Nayar et al. 20 and the recent . In order to have the rational information on the diseases treated, all the ailments were classified into ten categories ( table-1). A total of 131 plant species were recorded that were either rare, endemic or threatened and being widely used in traditional health care. These plants were distributed among 74 families and 120 genera. Trees with 53 species ent followed by 40 (30.5%) herb, 20 (15.3%) shrub, 13 (9.9%) climber and 5 (3.8%) epiphytes (figure-1; appendix- 1). Fabaceae with 16 species was dominant (21.6%) followed by Rutaceae, Orchidaceae, Moraceae and Apocynaceae (5 species each). Five families (A piaceae, Araceae, Euphorbiaceae, Juglandaceae and Liliaceae) were represented by 3 (4.1%) species each. There were sixteen families (Aquifoliaceae, Araliaceae, Arecaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lauraceae, Melastomaceae, Meliaceae, Piperaceae, Polygonaceae, Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Simaraubaceae, Theaceae and Verbenaceae) that were represented by two species each whereas, 48 families were monospecific. Out of total number of plants most of them grow in wild (119 species, 90.8%), followed by plants that grows in the wild as well as cultivated (9 species, 6.9%), while only 3 (2.3%) species are exclusively under cultivation (figure-1; a ppendix Table-1 Classification of the ailments treated - category Heart trouble, hematoma, high blood pressure and anemia. Scabies, ringworms, leprosy, rashes, pimples, acne, itching, dandruff, burns, insect bites, snake bites, caterpillar stings, poison consuming, cuts and wounds. Malaria, hypertension, measles, cold, stress and tension, insomnia, anxiety, restlessness and fever. Indigestion, vomiting, nausea, spasms, constipation, intestinal worms, gastric ulcers, stomach pain, liver problems, spleen problems, dysentery and diarrhea. Cancer, paralysis, muscular sprain and pain, bone dislocation, inflammation, rheumatism, obesity and weakness. Eye injury, conjunctivitis, eye sight problems, ear pain and eye redness. Bleeding gums and nose, toothache, mouth sores, tongue blisters, nasal congestion, dental caries, influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, cough, pulmonary infections, asthma and tuberculosis. Hydrocoel, diabetes, polyurea, gonorrhea, kidney stone, ameno rrhea, and pregnancy related Figure-1 Proportion of endemic and threatened medicinal plant species by occurrence and habit Cultivated Climber 10%Shrub15%Tree40% _________________________ ______ ISSN 2319–1414 Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. 65 1). Fabaceae with 16 species was dominant (21.6%) followed by Rutaceae, Orchidaceae, Moraceae and Apocynaceae (5 species each). Five families piaceae, Araceae, Euphorbiaceae, Juglandaceae and Liliaceae) were represented by 3 (4.1%) species each. There were sixteen families (Aquifoliaceae, Araliaceae, Arecaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lauraceae, Piperaceae, Polygonaceae, Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Simaraubaceae, Theaceae and Verbenaceae) that were represented by two species each whereas, 48 families were monospecific. Out of total number of plants most of them grow in wild (119 species, 90.8%), followed by plants that grows in the wild as well as cultivated (9 species, 6.9%), while only 3 (2.3%) species are exclusively ppendix -1). Scabies, ringworms, leprosy, rashes, pimples, acne, itching, dandruff, burns, insect bites, snake Malaria, hypertension, measles, cold, stress and tension, insomnia, anxiety, restlessness and fever. Indigestion, vomiting, nausea, spasms, constipation, intestinal worms, gastric ulcers, stomach pain, dislocation, inflammation, rheumatism, obesity Eye injury, conjunctivitis, eye sight problems, ear pain and eye redness. sores, tongue blisters, nasal congestion, dental caries, influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, cough, pulmonary infections, asthma and tuberculosis. rrhea, and pregnancy related Proportion of endemic and threatened medicinal plant species by occurrence and habit Climber Epiphyte4%Herb31% International Research Journal of Environment Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) International Science Congress Association Part used: The herbal remedies for different ailments were prepar ed by using the whole plant either singly or in combination. Plant parts which were used singly include leaves, bark, bulbs, fruits, rhizomes, roots, seeds, stem, and fronds, and in combination different proportions of the above parts were used. Among the single parts used were that of leaves (17.6%), followed by bark (12.2%), while the use of other parts was 10% (figure- 2). For combined parts used leaf/root accounted for 11.5%, followed by leaf/stem, leaf/bark and leaf/flower (3.1% each), root/seed, and r oot/bark combination (2.3% each) whereas, other combinations accounted for 2%. The use of whole plant was mainly for herbaceous species that contributed to 15.3% of the total species (figure- 2). The remedies from these plants were often utilized in the f orm of extracts, juice, paste and powder. Pastes made from leaves, fruits, bark, seeds and stem were applied on cuts, wounds, boils and skin diseases. Other preparations included chewing the raw plant and inhaling smoke or vapor generated by burning. Some plants were boiled, while others were applied directly in fresh form or Ailments treated: A wide range of ailments were treated using these plants. The majority of the species (87%) had multiple Proportion of plant parts used singly and in combinations Major ail ments treated by endemic and threatened medicinal plants in Meghalaya 102030 Flower Fruit Tuber Rhiz … Seed Stem No. of species Ophthalmological and odological problems Circulatory system problems Urogenital, gynecological and venereal problems Oro- dental and respiratory problems Cancer and musculoskeletal problems Head, thermoregulatory and nervous system problems External injuries, bites and dermatological problems Digestive system and gastrointestinal problems Environment Sciences_______________ _________________________ International Science Congress Association The herbal remedies for different ailments were ed by using the whole plant either singly or in combination. Plant parts which were used singly include leaves, bark, bulbs, fruits, rhizomes, roots, seeds, stem, and fronds, and in combination different proportions of the above parts were single parts used were that of leaves (17.6%), followed by bark (12.2%), while the use of other parts was 2). For combined parts used leaf/root accounted for 11.5%, followed by leaf/stem, leaf/bark and leaf/flower oot/bark combination (2.3% each) whereas, other combinations accounted for 2%. The use of whole plant was mainly for herbaceous species that contributed 2). The remedies from these orm of extracts, juice, paste and powder. Pastes made from leaves, fruits, bark, seeds and stem were applied on cuts, wounds, boils and skin diseases. Other preparations included chewing the raw plant and inhaling plants were boiled, while others were applied directly in fresh form or topically. A wide range of ailments were treated using these plants. The majority of the species (87%) had multiple therapeutic uses, while only few (13%) were used disease. Among the ailment categories, the gastro digestive system disorders were treated with the highest number of plant species (55), followed by external injuries, bites and dermatological problems (45), head, thermoregulatory nervous system problems (36), cancer and musculoskeletal problems (32), while the least number of species were used to treat ophthalmological and odological problems (8) ( Endemism and threat status: Out of the total 131 plants, 36 (27.4%) species were endemic (Appendix 1). These endemic medicinal plants were distributed in 27 families and 35 genera. The family Rutaceae with 3 species exhibited the highest number of endemics followed by Verbenaceae, Theaceae, Melastomaceae, Lauraceae, Fabace species each), while others were having less than 2 species. Most of the endemic species recorded were trees (13 species), followed by herbs and shrubs (10 species each), climbers (2 species) and epiphytes (1 species). Of the tota most of them are found in the wild (34) while both cultivated and wild as well as cultivated only comprised of 1 species each. Figure-2 Proportion of plant parts used singly and in combinations Figure-3 ments treated by endemic and threatened medicinal plants in Meghalaya Root Bark Who … Leaf 1015 Bark/fruit Flower/fruit Leaf/fruit Leaf/seed Bark/seed Root/bark Root/seed Leaf/bark No. of species  Ophthalmological and odological problems Circulatory system problems Urogenital, gynecological and venereal problems dental and respiratory problems Cancer and musculoskeletal problems Head, thermoregulatory and nervous system problems External injuries, bites and dermatological problems Digestive system and gastrointestinal problems Number of plant species _________________________ ______ ISSN 2319–1414 Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. 66 therapeutic uses, while only few (13%) were used for single disease. Among the ailment categories, the gastro -intestinal and digestive system disorders were treated with the highest number of plant species (55), followed by external injuries, bites and dermatological problems (45), head, thermoregulatory and nervous system problems (36), cancer and musculoskeletal problems (32), while the least number of species were used to treat ophthalmological and odological problems (8) ( figure-3). Out of the total 131 plants, 36 species were endemic (Appendix 1). These endemic medicinal plants were distributed in 27 families and 35 genera. The family Rutaceae with 3 species exhibited the highest number of endemics followed by Verbenaceae, Theaceae, Melastomaceae, Lauraceae, Fabace ae and Aquifoliaceae (2 species each), while others were having less than 2 species. Most of the endemic species recorded were trees (13 species), followed by herbs and shrubs (10 species each), climbers (2 species) and epiphytes (1 species). Of the tota l endemic species most of them are found in the wild (34) while both cultivated and wild as well as cultivated only comprised of 1 species each. ments treated by endemic and threatened medicinal plants in Meghalaya Leaf/bark Leaf/flower Leaf/stem Leaf/root  Number of plant species International Research Journal of Environment Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) International Science Congress Association In the present study, out of total 131 medicinal plant species, 113 (86.2%) species were found to be under various threat categories. Majority of the threatened species (42.5%) followed by herbs (31%), shrubs (13.3%), climbers (9.7%) and epiphytes (3.5%). Most of them grow in wild (89.4%) while only 8% species fall under both wild as well as cultivated and only 2.7% were cultivated. Of these, 46 species belon ging to 31 families and 45 genera fall under different threat categories at global level. This includes critically endangered (1 species), endangered (2 species), vulnerable (4 species), near threatened (2 species), least concern (36 species), and data deficient (1 species) (appendix-1; f species that were endemic were also threatened and majority of them were trees (8 species), followed by shrubs and herbs (5 each). There were 62 species that are considered as rare to the state of Meghalaya. Figure-4 Proportion of medicinal plant species under different IUCN threat categoriesDiscussion: The state of Meghalaya in northeast India is rich in medicinal plant diversity. The present analysis clearly reveals that majority of these species are either endemic to the region or falls under various threat categories. The dominance of Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Orchidaceae, Moraceae and Apocynaceae could be attributed to their wider distribution in the flora of the state17. Furthermore, the broad utiliz ation of species from these families might be attributed to the occurrence of effectual bioactive ingredients against different ailments different life forms, the dominance of trees under the threatened category indicates that many plants might h endangered due to logging as well as shifting cultivation dominance of trees and herbs as medicinal plants in the area could be attributed to their easy accessibility substantial herbal knowledge and dependence on it coul attributed to poor health facilities and the cultural and religious taboos of the local people. These tribes traditionally use specific medicinal plants for curing a number of diseases, while hospitals are used only in case of emergency multiple therapies based on combining plants in conventional medicine has revealed the increased effectiveness of the herbal 2%2%78%4%9% Critically endangered Data deficient Endangered Least Concern Near Threatned Vulnarable Environment Sciences_______________ _________________________ International Science Congress Association In the present study, out of total 131 medicinal plant species, 113 (86.2%) species were found to be under various threat categories. Majority of the threatened species were trees (42.5%) followed by herbs (31%), shrubs (13.3%), climbers (9.7%) and epiphytes (3.5%). Most of them grow in wild (89.4%) while only 8% species fall under both wild as well as cultivated and only 2.7% were cultivated. Of these, 46 species ging to 31 families and 45 genera fall under different threat categories at global level. This includes critically endangered (1 species), endangered (2 species), vulnerable (4 species), near threatened (2 species), least concern (36 species), f igure-4). Eighteen species that were endemic were also threatened and majority of them were trees (8 species), followed by shrubs and herbs (5 each). There were 62 species that are considered as rare to the Proportion of medicinal plant species under different IUCN The state of Meghalaya in northeast India is rich in medicinal plant diversity. The present analysis clearly reveals are either endemic to the region or falls under various threat categories. The dominance of Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Orchidaceae, Moraceae and Apocynaceae could be attributed to their wider distribution in the flora of the ation of species from these families might be attributed to the occurrence of effectual bioactive ingredients against different ailments 22. Of the different life forms, the dominance of trees under the threatened category indicates that many plants might h ave become endangered due to logging as well as shifting cultivation 23. The dominance of trees and herbs as medicinal plants in the area could be attributed to their easy accessibility 24,25. Holding of substantial herbal knowledge and dependence on it coul d be attributed to poor health facilities and the cultural and religious taboos of the local people. These tribes traditionally use specific medicinal plants for curing a number of diseases, while hospitals are used only in case of emergency 26. The use of multiple therapies based on combining plants in conventional medicine has revealed the increased effectiveness of the herbal medicine27 , due to additive or synergistic effects that they could have during disorder handling28,29 . High number of plants used in the treatment of gastro- intestinal disorders, principally diarrhea and dysentery as well as respiratory diseases may imply the prevalence of the disease in the region strengthens the belief that traditional indigenous knowledge could be expl oited for future options. Hence, s species can be targeted for phytochemical and pharmacological studies with the aim of identifying active ingredients contained and to get unique therapeutic uses. Wild habitats were found to be major pools but the collection of plant material through destructive harvesting makes them prone to threat and extinction. Also these habitats are subjected to anthropogenic influences and are consequently shrinking in size due to an ever population pressure and over exploitation. Extreme anthropogenic pressures seem to be the major cause of population decline and availability of the medicinal plants as evident by the presence of 46 species that falls under various threat categories21 . In addition the use of entire plant and particularly root and bark parts for medicinal preparations could pose a long- term threat on the survival of plants and such plants often tend to be the most threatened endemic and at the same time threatened are thus important species from conservation point of view. Therefore, strict and priority measures are necessary for their effective conservation. In order to meet the growing demand, cultivation of commercially viable species is nec essary. Unfortunately, only a few medicinal plants are presently under cultivation (e.g. Cinnamomum tamala, Citrus latipes, Solanum khasianum, Paphiopedilum insigne, Myrica nagi, Piper betel Consequently, the large- scale cultivation of endemic and t hreatened species is necessary for their conservation. Such efforts would also lessen the pressure on these species in the natural habitats. Therefore, mass awareness creation among local communities, their active involvement in plant resource management as well as raising their own ethnomedicinal herbal- gardens in their vicinity could help conserve many of these plants in the wild. Such efforts would also help to improve the livelihood options of the local people, provide long security of the tra ditional healthcare system and develop state’s economy. Conclusion Medicinal plants play a significant role in curing many human ailments in the state of Meghalaya. This traditional knowledge needs to be properly documented and active principles present in these plants need scientific analysis for their effective utilization for medicinal purposes. Due to overexploitation and the destruction of natural habitats many of these plants have become threatened. Therefore, ex- situ measur es should be taken to protect the medicinal plants of the state from further depletion with special focus to endemic and threatened species. 5% Data deficient Least Concern Vulnarable _________________________ ______ ISSN 2319–1414 Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. 67 , due to additive or synergistic effects that they could . High number of plants used intestinal disorders, principally diarrhea and dysentery as well as respiratory diseases may imply the prevalence of the disease in the region 30. The study strengthens the belief that traditional indigenous knowledge oited for future options. Hence, s ome of these targeted for phytochemical and pharmacological with the aim of identifying active ingredients contained Wild habitats were found to be major pools of medicinal plants, but the collection of plant material through destructive harvesting makes them prone to threat and extinction. Also these habitats are subjected to anthropogenic influences and are consequently shrinking in size due to an ever -increasing population pressure and over exploitation. Extreme anthropogenic pressures seem to be the major cause of population decline and availability of the medicinal plants 31,32, as evident by the presence of 46 species that falls under various . In addition the use of entire plant and particularly root and bark parts for medicinal preparations could term threat on the survival of plants and such plants often tend to be the most threatened 33. The species that are same time threatened are thus important species from conservation point of view. Therefore, strict and priority measures are necessary for their effective conservation. In order to meet the growing demand, cultivation of essary. Unfortunately, only a few medicinal plants are presently under cultivation (e.g. Cinnamomum tamala, Citrus latipes, Solanum khasianum, Myrica nagi, Piper betel etc.). scale cultivation of endemic and hreatened species is necessary for their conservation. Such efforts would also lessen the pressure on these species in the Therefore, mass awareness creation among local communities, their active involvement in plant resource raising their own ethnomedicinal - or gardens in their vicinity could help conserve many of these plants in the wild. Such efforts would also help to improve the livelihood options of the local people, provide long -term ditional healthcare system and develop state’s Medicinal plants play a significant role in curing many human ailments in the state of Meghalaya. This traditional knowledge needs to be properly documented and active principles present in these plants need scientific analysis for their effective utilization for medicinal purposes. Due to overexploitation and the destruction of natural habitats many of these plants have situ and in-situ conservation es should be taken to protect the medicinal plants of the further depletion with special focus to endemic and International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 68 References 1.Balick M.J., Elisabetsky E. and Laird S.A., Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and its importance to Human Health. Columbia University Press, New York (1996) 2.Cunningham A., An investigation of the herbal medicine trade in Natal KwaZulu. Institute of Natural Resources Investigational Report No. 29, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg (1988) 3.Joy P.P., Thomas J., Mathew S. and Skaria P., Medicinal plants. 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Indo-Malaya, Himalayas & NEI R Goniothalamus simonosiiHk.f. & Th. Annonaceae T W FR Fruit taken to relieve throat irritation. Meghalaya EN EN Hydrocotyle javanicaThunb Apiaceae H W L Used for cold, cough and fever along with leaves of Oenanthera spNE I & SE Asia LC Trachyspermum khasianumH. Wolff. Apiaceae H W L/ST The mashed leaves and stem applied on septic wounds. Meghalaya Centella asiatica L. Apiaceae H W WP Plant mashed and applied to boils and tumors. Extract taken for dysentery, diarrhea and cough along with ginger. India & SE Asia LC Ichnocarpus frutescens (L) R. Br. Apocynaceae Cl W L/R Used to alleviate inflammations and to prevent dental caries. Indo-Malaya, Australia & throughout India R Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. Apocynaceae H WC R During fever the root juice is taken raw or boiled to bring down the body temperature. East Asia (from India to Indonesia) EN Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br Apocynaceae T W B Juice used for cold, cough and gastrointestinal problems. Indo-Malaya, throughout India, Malesia and AustralLC International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 70 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN asia Wrightia coccinea(Roxb. ex Hornem.) Sims. Apocynaceae T W B Paste used to keep blood pressure under control. Indo-Malaya, confined to NEI R Holarrhena antidysenteric (Roth.) A. DC. Apocynaceae T W R/B The powdered bark to cure dysentery and the root used as an antidote for snake bite. South Africa, Indian Subcontinent & Indo-China LC Ilex khasianaPurk. Aquifoliaceae T W R/B Decoction used in cold, cough and tuberculosis Meghalaya CR CR Ilex embeloidesHook.f. Aquifoliaceae T W R/B Decoction used in cold, cough and tuberculosis. Meghalaya R Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng Araceae H W L Leaf juice applied to cuts, injuries and to relieve uterine contraction. Southern Africa & NEI LC Acorus calamus L. Araceae H W L/R Leaf juice is used to treat paralysis, epilepsy and stomach problem. Root juice taken for malaria and snake bites. Tropics and subtropics, especially in India & Sri Lanka LC Lasia spinosa(L.) Thw. Araceae H W RH The decoction of rhizomes mixed with sugar is consumed orally for poisoning Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar & Nepal LC Hedera helixCL. Araliaceae Cl W WP Used for skin diseases and as an antiseptic. Himalayas R Panax pseudo-ginseng Wall. Araliaceae H W L/R Used to stop or slow down bleeding. Sometimes taken by people who vomit up or cough up blood, or find blood in their urine or faeces. Also used to relieve pain and to reduce swelling. Eastern Himalaya, Tibet, Burma & China VU Calamus floribundusGriff. Arecaceae Cl W R Extract taken for indigestion, stomach ache and malaria. NEI Calamus erectus Roxb. Arecaceae SH W R/S Used in indigestion, stomach problems, eczema, wounds and diabetes. Himalayas & NEI R Aristolochia cathcartiiHk.f. Aristolochiaceae Cl W RH Stomach pain and in hydrocoel it is rubbed on testes Eastern Himalayas R Aristolochia saccata Wall. Aristolochiaceae Cl W TU Tubers boiled with salt are taken during stomach ailments. In spleen, hematoma and urinary troubles, the tubers are Central and Eastern Himalayas R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 71 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN boiled with alum and taken. Sphaeranthus indicus L. Asteraceae H W R/S Seed and roots are considered to be antihelminthic. Powdered roots are administered for stomachache and piles. Throughout India LC Impatiens tripetalaRoxb. ex DC. Balsaminaceae H W R Used to promote appetite and as digestive enzyme. NEI R Begonia rubro-veniaCl. Begoniaceae H W WP Whole plant is taken to cure diarrhea and dysentery. Himalayas & NEI R Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae H W L Antihelmenthic and antibacterial. Africa, tropical Asia & Australia R Cardamine impatiens L. Brassicaceae H W L Rheumatism and as diuretic. Europe & India R Crateava nurvala Buch. Ham Capparaceae T W B Urinary ailments. SE Asia & NEI R Viburnum simonsiiHk.f.&Th. Caprifoliaceae T W FR Used as tonic and to prevent spasms. Meghalaya Euonymus lawsonii Cl. & Pr. Celastraceae SH W B/S Bark used in syphilis, indigestion and liver disorder. Seed oil used for removing lice. Meghalaya Cephalotaxus mannii Hk. f. Cephalotaxaceae T W WP Used in inflammations and leukemia. Southern China, NEI, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar & Vietnam VU Garcinia pedunculataG.Don Clusiaceae T W FR Dysentery and urinary troubles. Indo-Burma, confined to NEI Commelina benghalensisL. Commelinaceae H W R Paste used to treat burns and treat indigestion. Tropical Asia & Africa LC Ipomoea uniflora (Burm. f.) Roem.Convolvulaceae Cl W WP For cholera, dysentery and vomiting aqueous extract is consumed orally. NEI, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand & Vietnam LC Thuja occidentalis L. Cupressaceae T C L For skin diseases Northeastern USA, Europe & cultivated elsewhere LC Cycas pectinataBuch. Ham Cycadaceae T WC ST Oil used for hair dandruff. NEI, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Southern China & Bangladesh R VU Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae H W WP Taken for delirium, dysentery and jaundice. Africa, Southern and Central Europe & Southern Asia LC International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 72 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN Daphniphyllum himalayense(Benth.) Muell.-Arg. Daphniphyllaceae T W ST A paste of the wood is applied as a poultice to boils. NEI R Dipsacus asper Wall. ex. DC. Dipsacaceae H W L For skin diseases Meghalaya Shorea robustaGaertn. Dipterocarpaceae T W FL Used as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory Himalaya, Myanmar, Nepal, India & Bangladesh LC Drosera peltata Sm. Droseraceae H W L As tonic and carminative. Himalayas, Indo-Malaya, Nilgiris & Australia R LC Diospyros pilosula (DC.) Hiern Ebenaceae T W WP Stomach disorder, piles, kidney stone, diarrhea and dysentery. Burma, NEI & Andaman R Equisetum ramosissimumDesf. Equisetaceae H W ST Used to treat the stomach pain. SE Africa, Central Europe & throughout Asia LC Erythroxylum kunthianumWall. Ex Kurz Erythroxylaceae T W B Bark chewed with betel leaf as a stimulant. Indo-Burma confined to NEI Boehmeria macrophyllaD.Don Euphorbiaceae H W L/ST Dysentery and diarrhea. Subtropical Himalayas Croton tigliumL. Euphorbiaceae SH W B/S The solution of the bark or seed in water is used as a laxative for stomach ailments. Sino-Malaya, NEI R Beliospermum micranthumMuell.-Arg Euphorbiaceae SH W L/R Juice and paste taken to cure asthma and body ache. Meghalaya R Saraca asoca(Roxb.) de Willde. Fabaceae T W B As antibacterial, for fever and cold. Indo-Malaya & throughout India R VU Bauhinia variegata L. Fabaceae T W L/FL Piles and dysentery. South Asia & SE Asia LC Bauhinia purpurea L. Fabaceae T W ST Antipyretic and antinflamatory. South China & SE Asia LC Spatholobus roxburghiiBenth. Fabaceae Cl W B Chewed for toothache and gum troubles India, Burma & Bangladesh LC Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Fabaceae Cl W L Leaf juice mixed with milk, used for treatment of indigestion in infants, scalding of urine and for curing bleeding gums. South & SE Asia LC Sophora acuminataBaker. Fabaceae SH W B Purification of blood after pregnancy. Bangladesh, Burma & Eastern Himalayas R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 73 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN Apios corneaBenth. Fabaceae SH W L Along banana leaf paste applied to cure joint pain. Meghalaya R Dalhousiea bracteata(Garh ex Roxb) Wt. Fabaceae SH W L Paste applied to cure cuts and wounds. India-Burma & Bangladesh R Mucuna bracteata DC. ex Kurz Fabaceae SH W S Seeds eaten raw to increase potency. Indo-Malaya & NEI LC Pongamia pinnata L. Fabaceae T W S Paste applied to treat scabies. Australia, Florida, Hawaii, India, Malaysia & Oceania LC Butea monospora(Lamk.) Kuntze Fabaceae T W S Mixed with Cyperus rotundus and used for delirium. Indo-Malaya R Cassia mimosoides L. Fabaceae T W WP Extract used to cure skin diseases. India, Southern China, southward Malaya to Australia LC Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae H W R Maggots in sheep and cattle are got rid off by feeding the infected animals. South America, Central America, Tanzania, South & SE Asia LC Parkia roxburghiiG.Don Fabaceae T WC R/S Infections, stomach disorders and menstruation disorder. Indo-Malaya & NEI R Xylia xylocarpa(Roxb.) Taub. Fabaceae T W WP Stem bark used as antidiarrheal. Leaf and root decoction, used to cure fevers. Indo-Malaya R Uraria picta(Jacq.) DC Fabaceae H W R Decoction taken to treat cough, chills and fevers. India & Bangladesh LC Xylosma longifoliumClos. Flacourtiaceae T W L/B Paste is externally used for skin diseases. Juice used for stomach ache. Himalayas R Hydnocarpus kurzii (King.) Ward. Flacourtiaceae T W S Seeds oil used in leprosy and other skin diseases. India & Myanmar DD Aeschynanthes superba Wall. ex DC. Gesneriaceae EP W B Paste used externally for bone fracture and muscular sprain. Meghalaya Chirita hamosa R.Br. Gesneriaceae H W L Decoction taken to treat respiratory disorders. Indo-Malaya, Meghalaya & western Ghats R Corylopsis himalayana Griff. Hemamelidaceae SH WC L/FL Dysentery, diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disorders. South China & NEI Engelhardtia spicata Leschen. ex Juglandaceae T W L/FL A fine paste made from inflorescence and young leaves is applied on scabies Indo Malaya & NEI LC International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 74 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN Bl. and other skin diseases. Engelhardtia roxburghianaWall. Juglandaceae T W R Crushed and the paste applied on forehead to heal the wounds. Indo-Malaya R Juglans regiaL. Juglandaceae T WC WP Anticancer and as tonic. Himalayas & southwest China. NT Lindera latifolia Hk.f. Lauraceae T W L/ST Paste applied topically to treat skin diseases. Meghalaya Cinnamomum pauciflorumNees. Lauraceae T W WP Bronchitis, asthma, diarrhea and nausea. NEI R Paris polyphyllaSmith. Liliaceae H WC L/R Fevers, burns and for detoxification. NEI & Bhutan R Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae H W L/S Extract used to treat pimples and skin diseases. NEI R Disporum calcaratum (D. Don) Baker Liliaceae H W TU Used as eye drops and for venereal disease urinary problems. Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Thailand, & Vietnam LC Lygodium microphyllumR.Br Lygodiaceae Cl W L Syrup taken to cure dysentery. Africa, South East Asia, Melanesia & Australia LC Rotala rotundifolia(Roxb.) Koehne. Lythraceae H W L Paste is applied for boils. India, China, Formosa, Thailand, Laos & Vietnam LC Ophiorrhiza subcapitataWall. ex. Hk. f. Melastomaceae H W L/R Decoction of roots and leaves mixed with honey taken orally for fever, sore throat, tonsils. Decoction alone mixed with water is used as wash for facial blemishes. Meghalaya EN Osbekia capitataBenth. Melastomaceae H W WP Antidote against snake bite and swelling of muscles. Meghalaya Toona ciliataM. Roem. Meliaceae H W L/B Infusion prepared from outer bark is used to expel worms. Infusion of leaves applied locally to cure fever and skin eruptions. South Asia & Australia LC Munronia pinnata(Wall.) Harms. Meliaceae SH W R Used to reduce stomach ache, vomiting and diarrhea R Cocculus mollis Hk.f. & Th. Menispermaceae SH W L Used to cure asthma. Nepal & Meghalaya Monotropa uniflora L. Monotropaceae H W L/R Pain killer and nervine. Asia, North America & R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 75 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN northern South America Ficus subincisaBuch.-Ham. Moraceae SH W L To treat digestive system disorders. Himalayas to Burma R Ficus microcarpa L. Moraceae T W B Diabetes, ulcers and burning sensations. Indo-Malaya South & NEI R Ficus oligodonMiq. Moraceae T W B/F Diarrhea and dysentery. Indo-Malaya confined to NEI R Streblus asperLour. Moraceae T W L Paste and powder applied on swellings and wounds. Indo-Malaya, throughout drier parts of India R Artocarpus gomezianusWall ex Trewl. Moraceae T W WP Digestive disorders and pain reliever. Tropical Himalayas to Burma R Myrica nagiThunb. Myricaceae T W B Decoction used in asthma, fever, chronic bronchitis and toothache. India, Nepal & China NT Ardisia odontophyllaDC. Myrsinaceae SH W L/R Used in dysentery, headache and malaria Indo-Burma & NEI R Nepanthes khasiana Hk.f. Nepenthaceae H W L/FL Juice of young flowers mixed with rice beer and taken to cure stomachache, eye sores or urinary troubles. Pitcher pounded to paste and mixed with water to treat cholera. Water stored in pitcher is used as ear drop in ear pain. Meghalaya EN Fraxinus floribundusWall. Oleaceae T W L Pain killer, fracture and dislocation. Temperate Himalayas & Sub Himalayas R Dendrobium densiflorumWall. Orchidaceae EP W FL Used as the tonic to nourish the stomach, to prevent the development of cataract, relieve throat inflammation and fatigue. NEI, Bhutan, Nepal, Burma & Thailand R Pleione maculata(Lindl.) Lindl. & Paxton Orchidaceae EP W L To relieve swellings. NEI, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal & Thailand R Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Orchidaceae EP W ST To treat complaints associated with dry mouth, dry cough, and severe thirst. NEI, Bhutan, Burma, China & Thailand EN Flickingeria fugax (Rchb. f.) Seidenf. Orchidaceae H W RH Healing wound. Himalaya & Indo-China EN Paphiopedilum insigneOrchidaceae H C WP Stomach troubles, dysentery and rheumatism. Meghalaya R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 76 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN (Wall. ex Lindl.) Pfitzer. Pinus kesiyaRoyle ex Gord. Pinaceae T W ST Cough in children. NEI, China, Burma & Thailand LC Piper peepuloidesRoxb. Piperaceae Cl WC S Mixed with honey and egg yolk for the treatment of severe cough. Tropical Himalayas, Nepal, Bangladesh & NEI VU Piper griffthiiC. DC. Piperaceae Cl W WP Dried seeds are powdered and mixed with honey and the yolk of egg and taken for severe cough. Whole plant paste is used for boils and skin diseases. NEI Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae H W R Root juice is used for jaundice. Tropics, Sub-tropics and Temperate regions of the world LC Polygonum hydropiper L. Polygonaceae H W L/R Paste applied as a balm for skin diseases. Australia, New Zealand, temperate Asia, Europe, & North America LC Polygonum bistorta L. Polygonaceae H W RH Diarrhea, enteritis, bleeding and gingivitis. Meghalaya Helecia excelsa Bl. Proteaceae T W B Bark is used to relieve the severe pain in abdomen. Indo-Burma, confined to NEI R Pteris vittataL. Pteridaceae H W L For cough and flu. Asia, tropical Africa & Australia LC Gardenia campanulataRoxb. Rubiaceae T W B Prevention of dental caries. Indo-Malaya, confined to NEI R Morinda umbellata L. Rubiaceae T W L/R Leaves used as decoction for diarrhea and dysentery. Decoction of leaves and roots used as vermifuge for children. Burma, Bangladesh & Himalaya R Luvunga scandensHam. Rutaceae SH W L/R Used as wormicidal and appetizer. NEI, Burma & Malacca R Paramigyna micranthaKurz Rutaceae SH W R Decoction of the roots is drunk to assuage abdominal, discomfort, and as diuretic. Meghalaya Zanthoxylum khasianumHk.f. Rutaceae SH W WP Alimentary canal disorders, stomachic, anthelmintic. Meghalaya Citrus latipes(Swingle) Tanaka. Rutaceae T WC L/FR Fruit juice is taken as an appetizer; paste of leaves is applied on joints suffering from gout and rheumatism. Juice of fruit is rubbed on Meghalaya R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 77 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN rashes and ringworm. Citrus aurantium L. Rutaceae T WC WP Skin diseases. Eastern Himalaya & NEI R Salix tetraspermaRoxb. Salicaceae SH W L/B Bark juice used to reduce fever, dried and powdered leaves is mixed with sugar and used in rheumatism, epilepsy, piles, swellings, and stones in bladder. Indo-Malaya and throughout India R Schleichera trijuga Willd. Sapindaceae T W WP Analgesic, antibiotic and against dysentery. SE Asia & throughout India R Mimusops elengii Roxb. Sapotaceae T W B Juice used to cure mouth ulcers, and pyorrhea. Indo-Malaya R Lindernia anagallisBurm.f. Scrophulariaceae H W L The leaf paste is applied on the forehead to relive throbbing headaches. Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia & India LC Bonnaya reptans(Roxb.) Spreng. Scrophulariaceae H W L/R Paste used as antidote for snake bite. The juice of leaves taken with milk for urinary ailments. NEI & Karnataka LC Picrasma javanica Bl. Simaraubaceae T W L/B Bark used as febrifuge while leaves applied to sores. Tropical SE Asia, Philippines, NEI & Andaman R Brucea mollisWall. ex Kurz Simaroubaceae SH W L Used for treatment of malaria. Sikkim, Bhutan, NEI, SE Asia, & Andaman R Stemona tuberose Lour. Stemonaceae Cl W TU Root is used to stop chronic and acute coughs, asthma, and is used externally for lice. SE Asia, throughout India R Pterygota alata (Roxb.) R. Br. Sterculiaceae T W S Stress reliever India, Bangladesh, Burma & Indo-Malaya R Taxus wallichianaZucc. Taxaceae T C L/ST Used for the treatment of bronchitis, asthma, epilepsy, snake bites, scorpion stings, lung diseases and diabetes. Himalayas EN Schima khasianaDyer. Theaceae T W B Skin irritations, anthelmintic and rubefacient Meghalaya R Camellia caduca Cl. ex Brandis. Theaceae T W L Juice taken for digestive and urinary problems. Meghalaya Aquilaria malaccensisLam. Thymelaeaceae T WC WP Used in asthma, digestive, and for fragrance. Indo-Malaya & NEI EN VU Holoptelea integrifolia(Roxb.) Planch. Ulmaceae T W B Diabetes, leprosy and skin diseases. Sino-India, throughout India R International Research Journal of Environment Sciences______________________________________________ ISSN 2319–1414 Vol. 3(12), 64-78, December (2014) Int. Res. J. Environment Sci. International Science Congress Association 78 Name Family Life form Occurrence Part used Uses Distribution Meghalaya IUCN Agapetes variegate(Roxb.) G. Don. Vacciniaceae EP W B Paste applied to cure fracture and dislocation of bones. Indo-Malaya & NEI R Callicarpa psilocalyx Cl. Verbenaceae SH W L/R Paste along with Vitis lanceolaria used to cure fever. Indo-Burma & NEI Clerodendrum hastatum(Roxb.) Lindl. Verbenaceae SH W WP Leaves and stem boiled and the water is taken to reduce high blood pressure. Leaves warmed over fire and then applied externally in rheumatism. Bangladesh & Meghalaya R Hedychium coronariumKoening. Zingeberaceae H W L/R Paste used to cure rheumatism. Himalayas EN Legend: Cl= Climber, T= Tree, EP= Epiphyte, H= Herb, SH= Shrub, C= Cultivated, W= Wild, WC= Wild and Cultivated, B= Bark, Fl= Flower, Fr= Fruit, L= Leaf, R= Root, RH= Rhizome, S= Seed, ST= Stem, TU= Tuber, WP= Whole plant, CR= Critically Endangered, EN= Endangered, VU= Vulnerable, DD= Data Deficient, LC= Least Concern, NT= Near Threatened, R= Rare. NEI= northeast India, SE= South east